SETTING THE SCENE

THE GENRE OF NARRATING

Read  Chapter 8 of the following book and summarize the key features of the genre of narrating.

 Genre, text, and grammar

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES

1. By function or meaning:

• Statements (affirmative or negative)
• questions
• Exclamations
• Commands

      2. According to the structure:

• Simple (only one finite verb)
• Compound (two conjoins added together in sequence)  
• Complex (a main clause modified by one or more subordinate clauses dependent upon it .
• Compound-complex: made up of  number of simple sentences and at least one subordinate clause.

CLASSIFICATION OF CLAUSES

• Main clause (principal, free, primary, matrix), and
• Subordinate Clause (dependent, bound, secondary, embedded, included, constituent)

Main clauses may be coordinated to each other. Subordinate clauses are attached to a main clause and are subdivided into:

-Noun clauses (or nominal clauses)

- Relative clauses (or adjectival clauses)

- Adverbial clauses (adverb  clauses)

Noun clauses:

1. THAT- CLAUSES
2. IF AND WHETHER CLAUSES
3. WH- INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES
4. NOMINAL RELATIVE CLAUSES

Activity. .

a. Read the definitions of sentences and clauses *main or sub, and write examples.

b. Analyse syntactically:

That he is dead seems certain.

I consider it likely that he might come.

My suggestion was that he should do it.

The idea that he had stolen the money surprised me.

I was sure that I had seen her.

(All noun clauses: THAT CLAUSES)

Coherence and Cohesion

Coherence means the connection of ideas at the idea level, and cohesion means the connection of ideas at the sentence level. Basically, coherence refers to the “rhetorical” aspects of your writing, which include developing and supporting your argument (e.g. thesis statement development), synthesizing and integrating readings, organizing and clarifying ideas. The cohesion of writing focuses on the “grammatical” aspects of writing. 

Here are some examples that illustrate the importance of connecting your ideas more effectively in writing.

The hotel is famous. It is one of the most well-known hotels in the country. The latest international dancing competition was held at the hotel. The hotel spent a lot of money to advertise the event. Because the hotel wanted to gain international reputation. But not many people attended the event. (The connection of ideas is not very good.) 
    
The hotel, which is one of the most well-known hotels in this region, wanted to promote its image around the world by hosting the latest international dancing competition. Although the event was widely advertised, not many people participated in the competition. (The connection of ideas is better than in the first example.)

The latest international dancing competition was held at the hotel, which is one of the most well-known hotels in this region. The hotel spent a lot of money on advertising the event since it wanted to enhance its international reputation; however, it failed to attract many people. (The connection of ideas is better than in the first example.)

What is Cohesion & Coherence?

Cohesion and coherence aren't too difficult to explain.  Cohesion refers to connectivity in a text.  Coherence refers to how easy it is to understand the writing.

Cohesion & Coherence

"My favourite colour is blue.  I like it because it is calming and it relaxes me.  I often go outside in the summer and lie on the grass and look into the clear sky when I am stressed.  For this reason, I'd have to say my favourite colour is blue."

This sentence is both coherent and cohesive, but let's focus on the cohesion first.  I've highlighted the ways that each sentence is connected to the sentence before.

Cohesion with NO Coherence

Now, here is a sentence that has cohesion but is not coherent.

"My favourite colour is blue.  Blue sports cars go very fast.  Driving in this way is dangerous and can cause many car crashes.  I had a car accident once and broke my leg.  I was very sad because I had to miss a holiday in Europe because of the injury."

Coherence with NO Cohesion

Now, let's take a look at a sentence that is coherent but not cohesive.

"My favourite colour is blue.  I'm calm and relaxed.  In the summer I lie on the grass and look up."

Cohesion - Linking Words and Phrases

Cohesion: linking words and phrases

You can use words or short phrases which help to guide your reader through your writing, and to link sentences, paragraphs and sections both forwards and backwards. Good use will make what you have written easy to follow; bad use might mean your style is disjointed, probably with too many short sentences, and consequently difficult to follow. Your mark could be affected either way.

The best way to "get a feel" for these words is through your reading. Most textbooks and articles are well-written and will probably include a lot of these cohesive devices. Note how they are used and try to emulate what you have read. Do make sure though that you fully understand their meaning: incorrect use could change completely what you're trying to say. Try to use a variety of expressions, particularly in longer pieces of writing.

Don't forget "AND"! Two short sentences are often best connected together with this little word.

There follows a list of words and phrases that can be used. The list is not exhaustive, and BE CAREFUL: although grouped together, none is totally synonymous. Their position in the sentence can also vary; this is where your reading and dictionary come in.

Listing

Giving examples

first, second, third	for example	in general
first, furthermore, finally	for instance	generally
to begin, to conclude	as follows:	on the whole
next	that is	as a rule
Reinforcement	in this case	for the most part
also	namely	in most cases
furthermore	in other words	usually
moreover	Result/consequence	Highlighting
what is more	so	in particular
in addition	therefore	particularly
besides	as a result/consequence	especially
above all	accordingly	mainly
as well (as)	consequently	Reformulation
in the same way	because of this/that	in other words
not only ... but also	thus	rather
Similarity	hence	to put it more simply
equally	for this/that reason	Expressing an alternative
likewise	so that	alternatively
similarly	in that case	rather
correspondingly	under these circumstances	on the other hand
in the same way	Deduction	the alternative is
Transition to new point	then	another possibility would be
now,	in other words	Contrast
as far as x is concerned	in that case	instead
with regard/reference to	otherwise	conversely
as for ...	this implies that ...	on the contrary
it follows that	if so/not	in contrast
turning to	Stating the obvious	in comparison
Summary	obviously	Concession (sth unexpected)
in conclusion	clearly	however
to conclude	naturally	even though
in brief	of course	however much
to summarise	as can be expected	nevertheless
overall	surely	still
therefore	after all	yet

Here are just a few examples of some of the words in action:

REINFORCEMENT

Desktop computers are cheaper and more reliable than laptops; furthermore, they are more flexible.

RESULT/CONSEQUENCE

Prices fell by more than 20% last year. As a result, sales increased by 15%.

GENERALISING

On the whole, his speech was well received, despite some complaints from new members.

CONTRAST

The South East of the UK often has the coldest weather in the winter. Conversely, the North West of Scotland frequently has the mildest temperatures.

CONCESSION

It was a very expensive holiday, the weather was bad and the people weren’t very friendly. Nevertheless, we would probably go back to the same place.

Transition word exercise

Always ask yourself what the exact relationship is between the sentences or parts of sentences. Are you leading to the result of something? Are you making a deduction? Are you introducing some contradictory evidence or ideas? Your choice of word or phrase obviously depends on this. And always check in a good dictionary if you're not quite sure about a word's use or its position in a sentence. Remember that punctuation will affect what you use.

Insert the best alternative

1 Polls show that Tony Blair is the most popular Prime Minister this century. ______________ , there are even members    of his own party who are uneasy with his approach.

In particular

However

For instance

2 There are some slight variations in temperature, but ________________ 26 to 27ºC should be expected.

consequently

otherwise

as a rule

3 The two main Channel Islands, ________________ Jersey and Guernsey, are much closer to France than to England.

for example

namely

in particular

4 It was announced that nurses' working hours would be increased by 25%. ______________ , even fewer trainee nurses     are expected to join the profession.

As a result

So that

Likewise

5 Sales of CDs have experienced a small but steady fall over the past 12 months. _____________ , vinyl records have    seen an increase in their share of the market, up to 1.7%.

Above all

Correspondingly

In contrast

6 The Vice Chancellor explained that in light of the current financial climate and because of unexpected bad debts, it would be necessary to peg salary levels at their current level for all grades of staff. ______________ , no-one was getting a pay rise.

Nevertheless

In other words

Similarly

7 It is clear, therefore, that the situation in Brazil will improve only slowly. ______________ the economic problems being experienced in Japan, the outlook is slightly more optimistic.

Furthermore

In comparison

With reference to

8 In order to try to reduce car use in the inner cities, the government has announced new restrictions on company parking spaces and ______________ , a new tax on individual car use.

as well as

in addition

in the same way

9 Essays must be handed in by the deadline, ______________ they will not be marked.

obviously

otherwise

as a result

10 ______________ it has been shown that fractures can occur at even relatively low pressures, the use of the material should not be completely discounted.

Nevertheless

Because

Even though

ANTICIPATORY IT AND THERE

IT 

The anticipatory subject IT is a subject with no meaning in itself. We need the anticipatory subject to leave the information at the end, and, at the same time, fulfill the necessity of a subject.

En English, we find two anticipatory words: it and there . The my anticipate real subjects.

We use it when talking about the weather, time, measures and distance:
It is very cold tonight. 
It functions as an anticipatory subject for
an infinitive: It is nice to work with you. 
an -ing-form: It is good seeing you. 
a finite clause: It is astonishing that he refused the offer.

IT anticipates:

• an infinitive: It is nice to see you.              
• a noun clause: It was a pity that you could not come.
• a gerundial phrase: It is no use crying over spilt milk. / It' s been nice talking to you.

THERE

We use there plus a form of to be when  we want to say that something exists or is. If we can replace ’det er/det var (ikke)’ by ’det finnes/fantes (ikke)’, we must use there is/was (not) in English.

In such cases there is an anticipatory subject for the real subject (underlined in these examples), which brings something new into the text.

• There is a snake in my garden.
• There is a button on that machine which you can press.
• There are many people here who can neither read nor write.

THERE anticipates:

• a noun: There is a book on the table
• a gerund: There is getting over it.

CLEFT SENTENCES AND THE IT IS EMPHATIC TRANSFORMATION.

It is the wife that decides       means        The wife decides.

but we want to emphasize the wife. 

It is possible to emphasize any one phrase>

Henry went to the cinema yesterday

1. It was Henry that went to the cinema yesterday.
2. It was yesterday that Henry went to the cinema.
3. It was to the cinema that Henry went yesterday.

ACTIVITY 4.

After reading this entry, analyze the following sentences and create sentences with every used of it and there.

There is cure for HIV infection at the present.

It may disappear in the future  with the discovery of a vaccine.

It was necessary to prevent new infections.

It is the perfect husband that behaves like this.

It is raining very hard now.

ACTIVITY 5.

Go through Unit 2 (Successful Writing) and do the activities on pages ll to l3 and acts. 9 and l0 on page l6.

MORE ABOUT DESCRIPTIVE WRITING

Descriptive Writing

      Descriptive writing has a unique power and appeal, as it evokes sights, smells, sounds, textures, and tastes. Using description in your writing brings the world within your text to your reader.

     

1.     Creating A Dominant Impression

      The first step in using effective description is to focus on a dominant impression. A dominant impression creates a mood or atmosphere in your paper. This mood can be conveyed through effective descriptive writing. For example, pay attention to the mood in the following paragraph.

          My family ate dinner at Merrymead Diner every Friday night while I was a child. We huddled close in a large, red booth as we scanned the familiar menu. The aroma of gravy over creamy mashed potatoes lingered in the air. I snuggled close to my mom’s arm as she ordered our drinks. The waitress brought our thick milkshakes out on a tray and placed them in front of us on a paper doily. The jukebox in the back played songs that we all knew the words to, and we sang along until our food arrived, hot and enticing on the table. Outside I shivered in the cold air, but in the diner I was cozy, munching on crispy French fries and enjoying a hot, juicy cheeseburger.

      Can you feel the mood of this paragraph? The author is trying to convey a feeling of safety, comfort, and happiness. Notice how the author does not tell the reader she feels safe and happy. She shows the reader through descriptive detail. Her dominant impression is one of comfort and happiness.

2.     Sensory Details

      Sensory description uses sight, sound, smell, touch, and taste to sketch an impression in writing. Consider a paragraph without sensory description.

          My sister and I walked along the boardwalk each afternoon of our vacation. We watched the ocean and listened to the waves. Usually we stopped for a snack at one of the many stores that line the boardwalk. Afterwards, we walked along the beach and let our feet get wet.

      Now, consider this paragraph with all five sensory descriptors: sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch.

          My sister and I walked along the boardwalk one afternoon on our vacation. The hot boards warmed our bare feet. We watched the foam-covered waves topple over each other and then slide back into sea. The crashing water competed with the exuberant yells from the seagulls. We bought a perfectly oval fluff of pink cotton candy that dissolved sweetly in our mouths. Afterwards, we walked along the edge of the water, letting the warm salty air blow our hair away from our necks as the cool water lapped over our toes.

3.     Vivid vs. Vague Language

      The sensory details you select in your writing should create for your reader the same picture you have in your mind. Instead of using vague, general words, your sensory language should be concrete and sensory-packed. This makes the difference between vivid and and vague language. Take a look at the comparison between vague and vivid sentences.

      Vague                                                             Vivid

      The food was unappetizing.             The pale turkey slices floated limply in a pool of murky fat.

      The sprinkler was refreshing.             The cool water from the sprinkler sprayed our hot faces.

      The traffic was heavy.                       Our old car puffed as Main Street became clogged with a line of clamoring motorists.

4.     Vary Sentence Structure

      When using descriptive language, it is important to vary your sentence structure. Try to avoid using the same subject-verb pattern in all sentences. Embedding descriptive elements and combining sentences can help to avoid the routine subject-verb structure.

          The hall was empty. She ran towards the classroom. She entered right after the bell rang.

      Varying this sentence structure by embedding descriptive detail breaks the monotonous tone and the clipped, subject-verb style.

          Racing down an empty hall, she skidded into the classroom, breathless, just as the bell clanged above her.

·      What to Avoid When Using Sensory Detail

          o Too many adjectives—retain only the most powerful words in your writing, deleting any unnecessary words

          o Too many adverbs—verbs are stronger than adverbs

                + She strolled into the room is more powerful than She walked casually into the room.

          o Clichéd figures of speech—overused language, such as green with envy, signals a lack of imagination. Use fresh, descriptive words that go against rote thinking.

ACTIVITY 3. DEALING WITH DESCRIPTIONS

Describing people.
Successful writing
Florencia, we are going to use this book from now on. Try to read pages 4-8 and do the activities therein. I will also send you the teachers book for you to check answers yourself, but I will corrcect and help you improve your productions.

Teachers Book

ACTIVITY3.
Describe a person you will never forget *Act l6
Choose one of the topics from Act 20.

IMPORTANT. Post your writings under the heading ACTIVITY # 3 (Engines ON)

PUNCTUATION: THE COMMAS

Commas and periods are the most frequently used punctuation marks. Commas customarily indicate a brief pause; they're not as final as periods.

Rule 1. Use commas to separate words and word groups in a simple series of three or more items.

Example: My estate goes to my husband, son, daughter-in-law, and nephew.

Note: When the last comma in a series comes before and or or (afterdaughter-in-law in the above example), it is known as the Oxford comma. Most newspapers and magazines drop the Oxford comma in a simple series, apparently feeling it's unnecessary. However, omission of the Oxford comma can sometimes lead to misunderstandings.

Example: We had coffee, cheese and crackers and grapes.

Adding a comma after crackers makes it clear that cheese and crackersrepresents one dish. In cases like this, clarity demands the Oxford comma.

We had coffee, cheese and crackers, and grapes.

Fiction and nonfiction books generally prefer the Oxford comma. Writers must decide Oxford or no Oxford and not switch back and forth, except when omitting the Oxford comma could cause confusion as in the cheese and crackers example.

Rule 2. Use a comma to separate two adjectives when the order of the adjectives is interchangeable.

Example: He is a strong, healthy man.
We could also say healthy, strong man.

Example: We stayed at an expensive summer resort.
We would not say summer expensive resort, so no comma.

Another way to determine if a comma is needed is to mentally put andbetween the two adjectives. If the result still makes sense, add the comma. In the examples above, a strong and healthy man makes sense, but an expensive and summer resort does not.

Rule 3a. Many inexperienced writers run two independent clauses together by using a comma instead of a period. This results in the dreaded run-on sentence or, more technically, a comma splice.

Incorrect: He walked all the way home, he shut the door.

There are several simple remedies:

Correct: He walked all the way home. He shut the door.
Correct: After he walked all the way home, he shut the door.
Correct: He walked all the way home, and he shut the door.

Rule 3b. In sentences where two independent clauses are joined by connectors such as and, or, but, etc., put a comma at the end of the first clause.

Incorrect: He walked all the way home and he shut the door.
Correct: He walked all the way home, and he shut the door.

Some writers omit the comma if the clauses are both quite short:

Example: I paint and he writes.

Rule 3c. If the subject does not appear in front of the second verb, a comma is generally unnecessary.

Example: He thought quickly but still did not answer correctly.

But sometimes a comma in this situation is necessary to avoid confusion.

Confusing: I saw that she was busy and prepared to leave.
Clearer with comma: I saw that she was busy, and prepared to leave.

Without a comma, the reader is liable to think that "she" was the one who was prepared to leave.

Rule 4a. When starting a sentence with a dependent clause, use a comma after it.

Example: If you are not sure about this, let me know now.

Follow the same policy with introductory phrases.

Example: Having finally arrived in town, we went shopping.

However, if the introductory phrase is clear and brief (three or four words), the comma is optional.

Example: When in town we go shopping.

But always add a comma if it would avoid confusion.

Example: Last Sunday, evening classes were canceled. (The comma prevents a misreading.)

When an introductory phrase begins with a preposition, a comma may not be necessary even if the phrase contains more than three or four words.

Example: Into the sparkling crystal ball he gazed.

If such a phrase contains more than one preposition, a comma may be used unless a verb immediately follows the phrase.

Examples:
Between your house on Main Street and my house on Grand Avenue, the mayor's mansion stands proudly.
Between your house on Main Street and my house on Grand Avenue is the mayor's mansion.

Rule 4b. A comma is usually unnecessary when the sentence starts with an independent clause followed by a dependent clause.

Example: Let me know now if you are not sure about this.

Rule 5. Use commas to set off nonessential words, clauses, and phrases (see Who, That, Which, Rule 2b).

Incorrect: Jill who is my sister shut the door.
Correct: Jill, who is my sister, shut the door.

Incorrect: The man knowing it was late hurried home.
Correct: The man, knowing it was late, hurried home.

In the preceding examples, note the comma after sister and late. Nonessential words, clauses, and phrases that occur midsentence must be enclosed by commas. The closing comma is called an appositive comma. Many writers forget to add this important comma. Following are two instances of the need for an appositive comma with one or more nouns.

Incorrect: My best friend, Joe arrived.
Correct: My best friend, Joe, arrived.

Incorrect: The three items, a book, a pen, and paper were on the table.
Correct: The three items, a book, a pen, and paper, were on the table.

Rule 6. If something or someone is sufficiently identified, the description that follows is considered nonessential and should be surrounded by commas.

Examples:
Freddy, who has a limp, was in an auto accident.
If we already know which Freddy is meant, the description is not essential.

The boy who has a limp was in an auto accident.
We do not know which boy is meant without further description; therefore, no commas are used.

This leads to a persistent problem. Look at the following sentence:

Example: My brother Bill is here.

Now, see how adding two commas changes that sentence's meaning:

Example: My brother, Bill, is here.

Careful writers and readers understand that the first sentence means I have more than one brother. The commas in the second sentence mean that Bill is my only brother.

Why? In the first sentence, Bill is essential information: it identifies which of my two (or more) brothers I'm speaking of. This is why no commas enclose Bill.

In the second sentence, Bill is nonessential information—whom else but Bill could I mean?—hence the commas.

Comma misuse is nothing to take lightly. It can lead to a train wreck like this:

Example: Mark Twain's book, Tom Sawyer, is a delight.

Because of the commas, that sentence states that Twain wrote only one book. In fact, he wrote more than two dozen of them.

Rule 7a. Use a comma after certain words that introduce a sentence, such as well, yes, why, hello, hey, etc.

Examples:
Why, I can't believe this!
No, you can't have a dollar.

Rule 7b. Use commas to set off expressions that interrupt the sentence flow (nevertheless, after all, by the way, on the other hand, however, etc.).

Example: I am, by the way, very nervous about this.

Rule 8. Use commas to set off the name, nickname, term of endearment, or title of a person directly addressed.

Examples:
Will you, Aisha, do that assignment for me?
Yes, old friend, I will.
Good day, Captain.

Rule 9. Use a comma to separate the day of the month from the year, and—what most people forget!—always put one after the year, also.

Example: It was in the Sun's June 5, 2003, edition.

No comma is necessary for just the month and year.

Example: It was in a June 2003 article.

Rule 10. Use a comma to separate a city from its state, and remember to put one after the state, also.

Example: I'm from the Akron, Ohio, area.

Rule 11. Traditionally, if a person's name is followed by Sr. or Jr., a comma follows the last name: Martin Luther King, Jr. This comma is no longer considered mandatory. However, if a comma does precede Sr. orJr., another comma must follow the entire name when it appears midsentence.

Correct: Al Mooney Sr. is here.
Correct: Al Mooney, Sr., is here.
Incorrect: Al Mooney, Sr. is here.

Rule 12. Similarly, use commas to enclose degrees or titles used with names.

Example: Al Mooney, M.D., is here.

Rule 13a. Use commas to introduce or interrupt direct quotations.

Examples:
He said, "I don't care."
"Why," I asked, "don't you care?"

This rule is optional with one-word quotations.

Example: He said "Stop."

Rule 13b. If the quotation comes before he said, she wrote, they reported, Dana insisted, or a similar attribution, end the quoted material with a comma, even if it is only one word.

Examples:
"I don't care," he said.
"Stop," he said.

Rule 13c. If a quotation functions as a subject or object in a sentence, it might not need a comma.

Examples:
Is "I don't care" all you can say to me?
Saying "Stop the car" was a mistake.

Rule 13d. If a quoted question ends in midsentence, the question mark replaces a comma.

Example: "Will you still be my friend?" she asked.

Rule 14. Use a comma to separate a statement from a question.

Example: I can go, can't I?

Rule 15. Use a comma to separate contrasting parts of a sentence.

Example: That is my money, not yours.

Rule 16a. Use a comma before and after certain introductory words or terms, such as namely, that is, i.e., e.g., and for instance, when they are followed by a series of items.

Example: You may be required to bring many items, e.g., sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing.

Rule 16b. A comma should precede the term etc. Many authorities also recommend a comma after etc. when it is placed midsentence.

Example: Sleeping bags, pans, warm clothing, etc., are in the tent.